The availability of energy resources and their relationship with global biodiversity are critical concerns that demand urgent attention, especially given the world’s rising energy demands. This review paper examines the impacts of both renewable and non-renewable energy sources on biodiversity across different ecosystems. The extraction and use of fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—have led to severe pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change, threatening countless species and ecosystems. The processing and consumption of these non-renewable resources continue to accelerate biodiversity loss. While renewable energy sources—such as solar, wind, bioenergy, and hydropower—offer a pathway to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, they also pose biodiversity challenges. Large-scale solar farms alter land use, causing habitat fragmentation. Wind farms, while crucial for clean energy, threaten bird and bat populations. Hydropower projects disrupt river ecosystems, affecting aquatic species’ migration patterns. Similarly, bioenergy production often relies on extensive monoculture farming, leading to deforestation, agrobiodiversity loss, and competition with food crops. This paper explores mitigation strategies, emphasizing ecological offsets and habitat restoration as key conservation tools. These approaches align with global frameworks such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), ensuring that energy policies integrate biodiversity protection. The review highlights the importance of balancing energy expansion with environmental sustainability through strategic policymaking. A region-specific approach is essential, given the varying energy needs and ecological sensitivities across countries. Overreliance on energy-intensive technologies in some regions exacerbates environmental degradation, necessitating countermeasures to prevent resource overexploitation. By incorporating biodiversity-conscious energy strategies into decision-making, it is possible to achieve a sustainable balance between energy production and conservation. This analysis underscores the need for globally coordinated yet locally adaptive policies to ensure that the transition to renewable energy does not come at the expense of biodiversity.

energy resources; global biodiversity; renewable energy; environmental impact; biodiversity conservation

1. Perera F. Pollution from Fossil-Fuel Combustion is the Leading Environmental Threat to Global Pediatric Health and Equity: Solutions Exist. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 15(1): 16. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15010016
2. Foley JA, DeFries R, Asner GP, et al. Global Consequences of Land Use. Science. 2005; 309(5734): 570-574. doi: 10.1126/science.1111772
3. Rahman A, Farrok O, Haque MM. Environmental impact of renewable energy source based electrical power plants: Solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, geothermal, tidal, ocean, and osmotic. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2022; 161: 112279. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112279
4. Gasparatos A, Doll CNH, Esteban M, et al. Renewable energy and biodiversity: Implications for transitioning to a Green Economy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017; 70: 161-184. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.030
5. Hernandez RR, Easter SB, Murphy-Mariscal ML, et al. Environmental impacts of utility-scale solar energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2014; 29: 766-779. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.041
6. Popp J, Lakner Z, Harangi-Rákos M, et al. The effect of bioenergy expansion: Food, energy, and environment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2014; 32: 559-578. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.056
7. Pflieger G. COP27: One step on loss and damage for the most vulnerable countries, no step for the fight against climate change. Males J, ed. PLOS Climate. 2023; 2(1): e0000136. doi: 10.1371/journal.pclm.0000136
8. McCay SD, Lacher TE. National level use of International Union for Conservation of Nature knowledge products in American National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans and National Reports to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Conservation Science and Practice. 2021; 3(5). doi: 10.1111/csp2.350
9. Hauschild MZ, Kara S, Røpke I. Absolute sustainability: Challenges to life cycle engineering. CIRP Annals. 2020; 69(2): 533-553. doi: 10.1016/j.cirp.2020.05.004
10. Pandit J, Sharma AK. A comprehensive review of climate change’s imprint on ecosystems. Journal of Water and Climate Change. 2023; 14(11): 4273–4284. doi: 10.2166/wcc.2023.476
11. Bauerek A. The environmental impact of coal mining and extraction. Journal of Environmental Hazards. 2024; 8.
12. Gasparotto J, Da Boit Martinello K. Coal as an energy source and its impacts on human health. Energy Geoscience. 2021; 2(2): 113-120. doi: 10.1016/j.engeos.2020.07.003
13. Harfoot MBJ, Tittensor DP, Knight S, et al. Present and future biodiversity risks from fossil fuel exploitation. Conservation Letters. 2018; 11(4). doi: 10.1111/conl.12448
14. Biswas G, Sengupta A, Alfaisal FM, et al. Evaluating the effects of landscape fragmentation on ecosystem services: A three-decade perspective. Ecological Informatics. 2023; 77: 102283. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoinf.2023.102283
15. Mishra A, Swamy SL, Thakur TK, et al. Impact of coal mining on land use changes, deforestation, biomass, and C losses in Central India: Implications for offsetting CO2 emissions. Land Degradation & Development. 2022; 33(18): 3731-3747. doi: 10.1002/ldr.4419
16. Dao PU, Heuzard AG, Le TXH, et al. The impacts of climate change on groundwater quality: A review. Science of The Total Environment. 2024; 912: 169241. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169241
17. Akcil A, Koldas S. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): causes, treatment and case studies. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2006; 14(12-13): 1139-1145. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.09.006
18. Jones NF, Pejchar L, Kiesecker JM. The Energy Footprint: How Oil, Natural Gas, and Wind Energy Affect Land for Biodiversity and the Flow of Ecosystem Services. BioScience. 2015; 65(3): 290-301. doi: 10.1093/biosci/biu224
19. Pan A, Xu S, Zaidi SAH. Environmental impact of energy imports: Natural resources income and natural gas production profitability in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Countries. Geoscience Frontiers. 2024; 15(2): 101756. doi: 10.1016/j.gsf.2023.101756
20. Meng Q. The impacts of fracking on the environment: A total environmental study paradigm. Science of The Total Environment. 2017; 580: 953-957. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.045
21. Akpan EE. Environmental Consequences of Oil Spills on Marine Habitats and the Mitigating Measures—The Niger Delta Perspective. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection. 2022; 10(06): 191-203. doi: 10.4236/gep.2022.106012
22. Shivanna KR. Climate change and its impact on biodiversity and human welfare. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy. 2022; 88(2): 160-171. doi: 10.1007/s43538-022-00073-6
23. Mar KA, Unger C, Walderdorff L, et al. Beyond CO2 equivalence: The impacts of methane on climate, ecosystems, and health. Environmental Science & Policy. 2022; 134: 127-136. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2022.03.027
24. Henle K, Gawel E, Ring I, et al. Promoting nuclear energy to sustain biodiversity conservation in the face of climate change: response to Brook and Bradshaw 2015. Conservation Biology. 2016; 30(3): 663-665. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12691
25. Brook BW, Bradshaw CJA. Key role for nuclear energy in global biodiversity conservation. Conservation Biology. 2014; 29(3): 702-712. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12433
26. Agboola C. The effects of thermal pollution on aquatic ecosystems. Journal of Industrial Pollution Control. 2023; 39.
27. Kati V, Kassara C, Vrontisi Z, et al. The biodiversity-wind energy-land use nexus in a global biodiversity hotspot. Science of The Total Environment. 2021; 768: 144471. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144471
28. Alsaleh M, Abdulwakil MM, Abdul-Rahim AS. Land-Use Change Impacts from Sustainable Hydropower Production in EU28 Region: An Empirical Analysis. Sustainability. 2021; 13(9): 4599. doi: 10.3390/su13094599
29. Tinsley E, Froidevaux JSP, Zsebők S, et al. Renewable energies and biodiversity: Impact of ground‐mounted solar photovoltaic sites on bat activity. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2023; 60(9): 1752-1762. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.14474
30. Ezzaeri K, Fatnassi H, Bouharroud R, et al. The effect of photovoltaic panels on the microclimate and on the tomato production under photovoltaic canarian greenhouses. Solar Energy. 2018; 173: 1126-1134. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2018.08.043
31. Tesfahunegny W, Datiko D, Wale M, et al. Impact of wind energy development on birds and bats: the case of Adama wind farm, Central Ethiopia. The Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology. 2020; 81(1). doi: 10.1186/s41936-020-00171-1
32. Tudge SJ, Purvis A, De Palma A. The impacts of biofuel crops on local biodiversity: a global synthesis. Biodiversity Conservation. 2021; 30: 2863–2883. doi: 10.1007/s10531-021-02232-5
33. Anifowose B, Odubela M. Methane emissions from oil and gas transport facilities—exploring innovative ways to mitigate environmental consequences. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2015; 92: 121-133. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.12.066
34. Ojija F, Nicholaus R. Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources and its Implications on Biodiversity: A Review. East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources. 2023; 6(1): 15-27. doi: 10.37284/eajenr.6.1.1063
35. Shindell D, Kuylenstierna JCI, Vignati E, et al. Simultaneously Mitigating Near-Term Climate Change and Improving Human Health and Food Security. Science. 2012; 335(6065): 183-189. doi: 10.1126/science.1210026
36. Moghimi Dehkordi M, Pournuroz Nodeh Z, Soleimani Dehkordi K, et al. Soil, air, and water pollution from mining and industrial activities: Sources of pollution, environmental impacts, and prevention and control methods. Results in Engineering. 2024; 23: 102729. doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102729
37. Doney SC, Fabry VJ, Feely RA, et al. Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Problem. Annual Review of Marine Science. 2009; 1(1): 169-192. doi: 10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834
38. Kondaveeti S, Mohanakrishna G, Lee JK, et al. Methane as a Substrate for Energy Generation Using Microbial Fuel Cells. Indian Journal of Microbiology. 2018; 59(1): 121-124. doi: 10.1007/s12088-018-0765-6
39. Sala OE, Stuart Chapin F, III, et al. Global Biodiversity Scenarios for the Year 2100. Science. 2000; 287(5459): 1770-1774. doi: 10.1126/science.287.5459.1770
40. Bennun J, van Bochove J, Ng C, et al. Mitigating biodiversity impacts associated with solar and wind energy development: Guidelines for Project Developers. IUCN & The Biodiversity Consultancy. 2021. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.CH.2021.04.en
41. Kaygusuz K. Wind Power for a Clean and Sustainable Energy Future. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy. 2009; 4(1): 122-133. doi: 10.1080/15567240701620390
42. Hernandez RR, Hoffacker MK, Murphy-Mariscal ML, et al. Solar energy development impacts on land cover change and protected areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2015; 112(44): 13579-13584. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1517656112
43. Wang F, Harindintwali JD, Wei K, et al. Climate change: Strategies for mitigation and adaptation. The Innovation Geoscience. 2023; 1(1): 100015. doi: 10.59717/j.xinn-geo.2023.100015
44. Long Y, Chen Y, Xu C, et al. The role of global installed wind energy in mitigating CO2 emission and temperature rising. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2023; 423: 138778. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138778
45. Tolvanen A, Routavaara H, Jokikokko M, et al. How far are birds, bats, and terrestrial mammals displaced from onshore wind power development?—A systematic review. Biological Conservation. 2023; 288: 110382. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110382
46. Schöll EM, Nopp-Mayr U. Impact of wind power plants on mammalian and avian wildlife species in shrub- and woodlands. Biological Conservation. 2021; 256: 109037. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109037
47. Thaxter CB, Buchanan GM, Carr J, et al. Bird and bat species’ global vulnerability to collision mortality at wind farms revealed through a trait-based assessment. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2017; 284(1862): 20170829. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2017.0829
48. Erbe C, Dent ML, Gannon WL, et al. The effects of noise on animals. In: Erbe C, Thomas JA (editors). Exploring animal behavior through sound, 1st ed. Springer, Cham; 2022. pp. 459–506.
49. Gartman V, Bulling L, Dahmen M, et al. Mitigation Measures for Wildlife in Wind Energy Development, Consolidating the State of Knowledge—Part 2: Operation, Decommissioning. Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management. 2016; 18(03): 1650014. doi: 10.1142/s1464333216500149
50. Tallis H, Kennedy CM, Ruckelshaus M, et al. Mitigation for one & all: An integrated framework for mitigation of development impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2015; 55: 21-34. doi: 10.1016/j.eiar.2015.06.005
51. Jolli V. Hydro Power Development and Its Impacts on the Habitats and Diversity of Montane Birds of Western Himalayas. Vestnik Zoologii. 2017; 51(4): 311-324. doi: 10.1515/vzoo-2017-0036
52. Bunea F, Ciocan GD, Oprina G, et al. Hydropower Impact on Water Quality. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal. 2010; 9(11): 1459-1464. doi: 10.30638/eemj.2010.195
53. Price SJ, Muncy BL, Bonner SJ, et al. Effects of mountaintop removal mining and valley filling on the occupancy and abundance of stream salamanders. Bellard C, ed. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2015; 53(2): 459-468. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.12585
54. The Open Wounds of Coal Mining in Colombia: Impacts of the Cerrejón coal mine on the environment and population in the La Guajira department. Available online: https://kolko.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/La-Guajira-eng-Vers-print.compressed.pdf (accessed on 20 January 2025).
55. Green Peace. Research Briefing: Impacts of the proposed Carmichael Coal Mine Project on the Black-throated Finch (Southern). Available online: https://www.banktrack.org/download/impacts_of_the_proposed_carmichael_coal_mine_project_on_the_black_throated_finch/blackthroated_finch_gp_fact_sheet_2014.pdf (accessed on 20 January 2025).
56. Buburuz M, Borlea S, Vintilă M, et al. Pressures, threats and impacts on life in the Black Sea. Available online: https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-romania-stateless/2024/05/5bacf577-02_pressures-threats-and-impacts-on-life-in-the-black-sea_greenpeace_rev02-1-1.pdf (accessed on 20 January 2025).
57. Fatkulina AV, Konokotin DN, Koroleva LA, et al. Environmental problems in the coal mining industry in Russia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2021; 867(1): 012087. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/867/1/012087
58. Pearce‐Higgins JW, Stephen L, Langston RHW, et al. The distribution of breeding birds around upland wind farms. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2009; 46(6): 1323-1331. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01715.x
59. Slavik K, Lemmen C, Zhang W, et al. The large-scale impact of offshore wind farm structures on pelagic primary productivity in the southern North Sea. Hydrobiologia. 2018; 845(1): 35-53. doi: 10.1007/s10750-018-3653-5
60. Hampl N. Energy systems for Brazil’s Amazon: Could renewable energy improve Indigenous livelihoods and save forest ecosystems? Energy Research & Social Science. 2024; 112: 103491. doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2024.103491
61. Hayes MA. Bats Killed in large numbers at United States wind energy facilities. BioScience. 2013; 63(12): 975-979. doi: 10.1525/bio.2013.63.12.10
62. Smallwood KS. Comparing bird and bat fatality‐rate estimates among North American wind‐energy projects. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 2013; 37(1): 19-33. doi: 10.1002/wsb.260
63. Nature Conservancy. Mojave desert solar program. Available online: https://www.nature.org (accessed on 20 January 2025).
64. Global Times. Three gorges dam fish passage system. Available online: https://www.globaltimes.cn (accessed on 20 January 2025).
65. Mott Foundation. Solar power in the Amazon. Available online: https://www.mott.org (accessed on 20 January 2025).
66. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. Wildlife habitat restoration on wind energy projects. Available online: https://www.dfw.state.or.us (accessed on 20 January 2025).
67. Canada Action. Oil sands reclamation in Canada. Available online: https://energynow.ca (accessed on 20 January 2025).
68. Earth.Org. Cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Accessed online: https://earth.org (accessed on 20 January 2025).
69. Inside Climate News. Wyoming coal mines carbon capture technology. Available online: https://insideclimatenews.org (accessed on 20 January 2025).
70. The Guardian. The brutal impact of oil in the Niger Delta. Available online: https://www.theguardian.com (accessed on 20 January 2025).
71. American Society of Reclamation Scientists. Post-mining reclamation in the UK. Available online: https://www.asrs.us (accessed on 20 January 2025).