Open Journal Systems

Diabetes and cardiovascular disease

Carlos Guamán, William Acosta, Carla Alvarez4, Benhard Hasbum

Article ID: 1918
Vol 4, Issue 2, 2023

VIEWS - 88 (Abstract)

Abstract

Diabetes mellitus is one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. This group of patients generally represents a population at high or very high cardiovascular risk, which is why early risk stratification is performed, seeking to focus objectively on the pharmacological and nonpharmacological approach with an intensive strategy. Cardiovascular disease represents the main cause of mortality, but in recent years there have been advances in therapeutics that have been shown to reduce major cardiovascular events. This article reviews the interaction between diabetes, cardiovascular disease and its treatment.

Keywords

diabetes mellitus; cardiovascular diseases; hypertension; myocardial ischemia; heart failure; cardiac arrhythmias

Full Text:

PDF

References

1. Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;87[1]:4-14. doi: 10. 1016/j.diabres.2009.10.007.

2. Cosentino F, Grant PJ, Aboyans V, Bailey CJ, Ceriello A, Delgado V, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD. Eur Heart J. 2020;41[2]:255-323. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehz486.

3. International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas - 9th Edition [Internet]. Brussels: International Diabetes Federation; 2019 [accessed 15 Jan 2021]. Available from: https://www.diabetesatlas.org/ upload/re- sources/2019/IDF_Atlas_9th_Edition_ 2019.pdf.

4. Norhammar A, Tenerz A, Nilsson G, Hamsten A, Efendíc S, Rydén L, et al. Glucose metabolism in patients with acute myocardial infarction and no previous diagnosis of diabetes mellitus: a prospective study. Lancet. 2002;359[9324]:2140-4. doi: 10.1016/ S0140-6736[02]09089-X.

5. Preis SR, Hwang SJ, Coady S, Pencina MJ, D'Agostino RB, Savage PJ, et al. Trends in all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality among women and men with and without diabetes mellitus in the Framingham Heart Study, 1950 to 2005. Circulation. 2009;119[13]:1728-35. doi: 10. 1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.829176.

6. Sarwar N, Gao P, Seshasai SRK, Gobin R, Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, Ingelsson E, et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet. 2010;375[9733]:2215-22. doi: 10.1016/S0140- 6736[10]60484-9

7. Tancredi M, Rosengren A, Svensson AM, Kosi- borod M, Pivodic A, Gudbjornsdottir S, et al. Excess mortality among persons with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;373[18]:1720-32. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1504347.

8. Di Angelantonio E, Kaptoge S, Wormser D, Wi- lleit P, Butterworth AS, Bansal N, O'Keeffe LM, et al. Association of Cardiometabolic Multimor- bidityWithMortality. JAMA. 2015;314[1]:52-60. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.7008.

9. Rawshani A, Sattar N, Franzén S, Rawshani A, Hattersley AT, Svensson AM, et al. Excess mortality and cardiovascular disease in young adults with type 1 diabetes in relation to age at onset: a nationwide, register-based cohort study. Lancet. 2018;392[10146]:477-86. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736 [18]31506-X.

10. Gnatiuc L, Herrington WG, Halsey J, Tuomi- lehto J, Fang X, Kim HC, et al. Sex-specific relevance of diabetes to occlusive vascular and other mortality: a collaborative meta-analysis of individual data from 980,793 adults from 68 prospective studies. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6[7]:538-46. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587[18]30079-2.

11. Price AH, Weir CJ, Welsh P, McLachlan S, Strachan MWJ, Sattar N, et al. Comparison of non-traditional biomarkers, and combinations of biomarkers, for vascular risk prediction in people with type 2 diabetes: The Edinburgh Type 2 Diabetes Study. Atherosclerosis. 2017; 264: 67-73. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2017.07.009.

12. de Boer IH, Gao X, Cleary PA, Bebu I, Lachin JM, Molitch ME, et al. Albuminuria Changes and Cardiovascular and Renal Outcomes in Type 1 Diabetes: The DCCT/EDIC Study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016; 11[11]: 1969-77. doi: 10.2215/ CJN.0287- 0316.

13. Gæde P, Oellgaard J, Carstensen B, Rossing P, Lund-Andersen H, Parving HH, et al. Years of life gained by multifactorial intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and microalbuminu- ria: 21 years follow-up on the Steno-2 randomised trial. Diabetologia. 2016;59[11]:2298-307. doi: 10. 1007/ s00125-016-4065-6

14. Savarese G, Dei Cas A, Rosano G, D'Amore C, Musella F, Mosca S, et al. Reduction of albumin urinary excretion is associated with reduced cardiovascular events in hypertensive and/or diabetic patients. A meta-regression analysis of 32 randomized trials. Int J Cardiol. 2014;172[2]:403-10. doi: 10.101- 6/j.ijcard.2014.01.065.

15. Piepoli MF, Hoes AW, Agewall S, Albus C, Brotons C, Catapano AL, et al. 2016 European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: the sixth joint task force of the European Society of Cardiology and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice [constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts] developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation [EACPR]. Atherosclerosis. 2016;252:207-74. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2016. 05.037

16. Hadaegh F, Ehteshami-Afshar S, Hajebrahimi MA, Hajsheikholeslami F, Azizi F. Silent coronary artery disease and incidence of cardiovascular and mortality events at different levels of glucose re- gulation; results of greater than a decade follow-up. Int J Cardiol. 2015;182:334-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard. 2015.01.017

17. Stettler C, Bearth A, Allemann S, Zwahlen M, Zanchin L, Deplazes M, et al. QTc interval and resting heart rate as long-term predictors of mortality in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a 23-year follow-up. Diabetologia. 2007;50[1]:186-94. doi: 10.1007/ s00125-006-0483-1

18. Pop-Busui R, Evans GW, Gerstein HC, Fonseca V, Fleg JL, Hoogwerf BJ, et al. Effects of cardiac autonomic dysfunction on mortality risk in the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes [ACCORD] trial. Diabetes Care. 2010;33[7]: 1578-84. doi: 10.2337/dc10-0125.

19. Ernande L, Audureau E, Jellis CL, Bergerot C, Henegar C, Sawaki D, et al. Clinical implications of echocardiographic phenotypes of patients with diabetes mellitus. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70[14]: 1704-16. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.07.792.

20. Ng AC, Auger D, Delgado V, van Elderen SGC, Bertini M, Siebelink HM, et al. Association between diffuse myocardial fibrosis by cardiac magnetic resonance contrast-enhanced T1 mapping and sub-clinical myocardial dysfunction in diabetic patients: a pilot study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012; 5[1]: 51-9. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.111.965608.

21. Valenti V, Hartaigh BÓ, Cho I, Schulman-Marcus J, Gransar H, Heo R, et al. Absence of coronary artery calcium identifies asymptomatic diabetic individuals at low near-term but not long-term risk of mortality: a 15-year Follow-Up Study of 9715 patients. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;9[2]:e003528. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.003528.

22. Clerc OF, Fuchs TA, Stehli J, Benz DC, Grani C, Messerli M, et al. Non-invasive screening for coronary artery disease in asymptomatic diabetic patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;19[8]:838-46. doi: 10.1093/ehjci/jey014.

23. Malik S, Budoff MJ, Katz R, Blumenthal RS, Bertoni AG, Nasir K, et al. Impact of subclinical atherosclerosis on cardiovascular disease events in individuals with metabolic syndrome and diabetes: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Diabetes Care. 2011;34[10]:2285-90. doi: 10.2337/dc11-0816.

24. Emdin CA, Rahimi K, Neal B, Callender T, Per- kovic V, Patel A. Blood pressure lowering in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2015;313[6]:603-15. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014. 18574

25. Petrie JR, Guzik TJ, Touyz RM. Diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease: clinical insights and vascular mechanisms. Can J Cardiol. 2018;34[5]: 575-84. doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2017.12.005.

26. Bangalore S, Kumar S, Lobach I, Messerli FH. Blood pressure targets in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus/impaired fasting glucose: observations from traditional and bayesian random-effects meta-analyses of randomized trials. Circulation. 2011;123[24]:2799-810. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULA- TIONAHA.110.016337.

27. Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, Agabiti Rosei E, Azizi M, Burnier M, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hyperten- sion.EurHeartJ.2018;39[33]:3021-104.doi:10.1093/ eurheartj/ehy339

28. Hansen D, Niebauer J, Cornelissen V, Barna O, Neunhauserer D, Stettler C, et al. Exercise prescription in patients with different combinations of cardiovascular disease risk factors: a consensus statement from the EXPERT Working Group. Sports Med. 2018;48[8]:1781-97. doi: 10.1007/s40279- 0180930-4.

29. Wing RR, Lang W, Wadden TA, Safford M, Knowler WC, Bertoni AG, et al. Benefits of modest weight loss in improving cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011;34[7]:1481-6. doi: 10. 2337/ dc10-2415.

30. Weber MA, Bakris GL, Jamerson K, Weir M, Kjeldsen SE, Devereux RB, et al. Cardiovascular events during differing hypertension therapies in patients with diabetes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56[1]: 77-85. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.02.046.

31. Wald DS, Law M, Morris JK, Bestwick JP, Wald NJ. Combination therapy versus monotherapy in reducing blood pressure: meta-analysis on 11,000 participants from 42 trials. Am J Med. 2009;122[3]: 290-300. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.09.038.

32. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, Kristensen P, Mann JF, Nauck MA, et al. Lira- glutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N EnglJMed. 2016;375[4]:311-22. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1603827.

33. Mazidi M, Rezaie P, Gao HK, Kengne AP. Effect of sodium-glucose cotransport-2 inhibitors on blood pressure in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 43 randomized control trials with 22,528 patients. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6[6]:e004007. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.116. 004007.

34. Baigent C, Blackwell L, Collins R, Emberson J, Godwin J, Peto R, et al. Aspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease: collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised trials. Lancet. 2009;373[9678]: 1849-60. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736[09]60503-1

35. Bowman L, Mafham M, Wallendszus K, Stevens W, Buck G, Barton J, et al. Effects of Aspirin for primary prevention in persons with diabetes me- llitus. N Engl J Med. 2018;379[16]:1529-39. doi: 10. 1056∕NEJMoa1804988.

36. Ryden L, Grant PJ, Anker SD, Berne C, Cosentino F, Danchin N, et al. ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD: the task force on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases of the European Society of Cardiology [ESC] and developed in collaboration with the European Association for the Study of Diabetes [EASD]. Eur Heart J. 2013;34[39]:3035-87. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/eht108

37. Knuuti J, Wijns W, Saraste A, Capodanno D, Barbato E, Funck-Brentano C, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of chronic coronary syndromes. Eur Heart J. 2020; 41[3]:407-77. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehz425.

38. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes [UKPDS 34]. UK Prospective Diabetes Study [UKPDS] Group. Lancet. 1998;352[9131]: 854-65. Erratum in: Lancet 1998; 352[9139]: 1558.

39. Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, Matthews DR, Neil HA. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008; 359[15]:1577-89. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0806470.

40. Maruthur NM, Tseng E, Hutfless S, Wilson LM, Suarez-Cuervo C, Berger Z, Chu Y, et al. Diabetes medications as monotherapy or Metformin-Based combination therapy for type 2 Diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164[11]:740-51. doi: 10.7326/M15-2650.

41. Rosenstock J, Kahn SE, Johansen OE, Zinman B, Espeland MA, Woerle HJ, et al. Effect of Lina- gliptin vs Glimepiride on major adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 Diabetes: The CAROLINA randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019;322[12]:1155-66. doi: 10.1001/jama.2019.13772.

42. Bain S, Druyts E, Balijepalli C, Baxter CA, Currie CJ, Das R, et al. Cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality associated with sulphonylureas compared with other antihyperglycaemic drugs: a Bayesian meta-analysis of survival data. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19[3]:329-35. doi: 10.1111/dom. 12821

43. Simpson SH, Lee J, Choi S, Vandermeer B, Abdelmoneim AS, Featherstone TR. Mortality risk among sulfonylureas: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015;3[1]:43-51. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587[14]70213-X.

44. Dormandy JA, Charbonnel B, Eckland DJ, Erdmann E, Massi-Benedetti M, Moules IK, et al. Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study [PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVas- cular Events]: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005;366[9493]:1279-89. doi: 10.1016/S0140- 6736 [05]67528-9

45. Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med. 2007;356 [24]:2457- 71. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa072761. Erratum in: N Engl J Med.2007;357[1] :100.

46. Scirica BM, Bhatt DL, Braunwald E, Steg PG, Davidson J, Hirshberg B, et al. Saxagliptin and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2013;369[14]:1317-26. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1307684.

47. Marso SP, Bain SC, Consoli A, Eliaschewitz FG, Jódar E, Leiter LA, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;375[19]:1834-44. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1607141.

48. Husain M, Birkenfeld AL, Donsmark M, Dungan K, Eliaschewitz FG, Franco DR, et al. Oral semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2019;381[9]: 841-51. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1901118.

49. Nauck MA, Meier JJ, Cavender MA, Abd El Aziz M, Drucker DJ. Cardiovascular actions and clinical outcomes with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors. Circulation. 2017;136[9]:849-70. doi: 10.1161/ CIRCULATIONAHA.117.028136.

50. Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, Fitchett D, Bluhmki E, Hantel S, et al. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;373[22]:2117-28. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1504720.

51. Neal B, Perkovic V, Mahaffey KW, de Zeeuw D, Fulcher G, Erondu N, et al. Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2017;377[7]:644-57. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa- 1611925.

52. Wiviott SD, Raz I, Bonaca MP, Mosenzon O, Kato ET, Cahn A, et al. Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2019;380[4]:347-57. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1812389.

53. Perkovic V, Jardine MJ, Neal B, Bompoint S, Heerspink HJL, Charytan DM, et al. Canagliflo- zin and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2019;380[24]:2295-306. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1811744.

54. Zelniker TA, Braunwald E. Mechanisms of cardiorenal effects of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;75[4]:422-34. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc. 2019. 11.031

55. Gerstein HC, Bosch J, Dagenais GR, Diaz R, Jung H, Maggioni AP, et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367[4]:319-28. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1203858.

56. Pratley RE, Emerson SS, Franek E, Gilbert MP, Marso SP, McGuire DK, et al. Cardiovascular safety and lower severe hypoglycaemia of insulin degludec versus insulin glargine U100 in patients with type 2 diabetes aged 65 years or older: Results from DEVOTE [DEVOTE 7]. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2019;21[7]:1625-33. doi: 10.1111/dom.13699.

57. Arnold SV, Lipska KJ, Inzucchi SE, Li Y, Jones PG, McGuire DK, et al. The reliability of in-hospital diagnoses of diabetes mellitus in the setting of an acute myocardial infarction. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2014;2[1]:e000046. doi: 10.1136/bmjdrc- 2014-000046.

58. Stolker JM, Sun D, Conaway DG, Jones PG, Masoudi FA, Peterson PN, et al. Importance of measuring glycosylated hemoglobin in patients with myocardial infarction and known diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105[8]:1090-4. doi: 10.1016/ j.amjcard.2009.12.010.

59. Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Diaz R, Zhu J, Pais P, Xavier D, et al. Effect of glucose-insulin-potassium infusion on mortality in patients with acute ST-seg- ment elevation myocardial infarction: the CREATE- ECLA randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005; 293[4]:437-46. doi: 10.1001/jama.293.4.437.

60. Malmberg K, Ryden L, Efendic S, Herlitz J, Nicol P, Waldenstrom A, et al. Randomized trial of insu- lin-glucose infusion followed by subcutaneous insulin treatment in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction [DIGAMI study]: effects on mortality at 1 year. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26[1]:57-65. doi: 10.1016/0735-1097[95]00126-k

61. Zhao YT, Weng CL, Chen ML, Li KB, Ge YG, Lin XM, et al. Comparison of glucose-insulin-potassium and insulin-glucose as adjunctive therapy in acute myocardial infarction: a contemporary meta-analy- sis of randomised controlled trials. Heart. 2010;96[20]:1622-6. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2010.194563.

62. Malmberg K, Rydén L, Wedel H, Birkeland K, Bootsma A, Dickstein K, et al. Intense metabolic control by means of insulin in patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction [DIGAMI 2]: effects on mortality and morbidity. Eur Heart J. 2005;26[7]:650-61. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehi199.

63. Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, Blair D, Foster D, Dhingra V, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;360[13]:1283-97. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0810625.

64. Nichols GA, Gullion CM, Koro CE, Ephross SA, Brown JB. The incidence of congestive heart failure in type 2 diabetes: an update. Diabetes Care. 2004;27[8]:1879-84. doi: 10.2337/diacare.27.8.1879.

65. Chen YT, Vaccarino V, Williams CS, Butler J, Berkman LF, Krumholz HM. Risk factors for heart failure in the elderly: a prospective community-based study.AmJMed. 1999;106[6]:605-12. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9343[99]00126-6.

66. Boonman-de Winter LJ, Rutten FH, Cramer MJM, Landman MJ, Liem AH, Rutten GE, et al. High prevalence of previously unknown heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2012;55[8]:2154-62. doi: 10.1007/s00125-012-2579-0.

67. Matsushita K, Blecker S, Pazin-Filho A, Berto- ni A, Chang PP, Coresh J, et al. The association of hemoglobin a1c with incident heart failure among people without diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Diabetes. 2010;59[8]:2020-6. doi: 10.2337/db10-0165.

68. Johansson I, Dahlstrom U, Edner M, Nãsman P, Rydén L, Norhammar A. Type 2 diabetes and heart failure: Characteristics and prognosis in preserved, mid-range and reduced ventricular function. Diab Vasc Dis Res. 2018;15[6]:494-503. doi: 10.1177/ 1479164118794619.

69. Demant MN, Gislason GH, K0ber L, Vaag A, Torp-Pedersen C, Andersson C. Association of heart failure severity with risk of diabetes: a Danish nationwide cohort study. Diabetologia. 2014;57[8]: 1595-600. doi: 10.1007/s00125- 014-3259-z.

70. Nichols GA, Gullion CM, Koro CE, Ephross SA, Brown JB. The incidence of congestive heart failure in type 2 diabetes: an update. Diabetes Care. 2004;27[8]:1879-84. doi: 10.2337/diacare.27.8.1879.

71. Seferovic PM, Paulus WJ. Clinical diabetic cardiomyopathy: a two-faced disease with restrictive and dilated phenotypes. Eur Heart J. 2015;36[27]: 171827, 1727a-1727c. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehv134.

72. Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, Bueno H, Cleland JGF, Coats AJ, et al. 2016 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology [ESC]. Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association [HFA] of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail. 2016; 18[8]:891-975. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.592.

73. Arnold SV, Spertus JA, Lipska KJ, Lanfear DE, Tang F, Grodzinsky A, et al. Type of beta-blocker use among patients with versus without diabetes after myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 2014;168[3]: 273-9.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2014.04.018.

74. Seferovic JP, Claggett B, Seidelmann SB, Seely EW, Packer M, Zile MR, et al. Effect of sa- cubitril/valsartan versus enalapril on glycaemic control in patients with heart failure and diabetes: a post-hoc analysis from the PARADIGM-HF trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017;5[5]:333-40. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587[17]30087-6.

75. McMurray JJV, Packer M, Desai AS, Gong J, Lefkowitz MP, Rizkala AR, et al; PARADIGM- HF Investigators and Committees. Angioten- sin-neprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2014; 371[11]:993-1004. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1409077.

76. Eurich DT, Weir DL, Majumdar SR, Tsuyuki RT, Johnson JA, Tjosvold L, et al. Comparative safety and effectiveness of metformin in patients with diabetes mellitus and heart failure: systematic review of observational studies involving 34,000 patients. Circ Heart Fail. 2013;6[3]:395-402. doi: 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.000162.

77. Pantalone KM, Kattan MW, Yu C, Wells BJ, Arrigain S, Jain A, et al. The risk of developing coronary artery disease or congestive heart failure, and overall mortality, in type 2 diabetic patients receiving rosiglitazone, pioglitazone, metformin, or sulfonylureas: a retrospective analysis. Acta Diabetol. 2009;46[2]:145-54. doi: 10.1007/s00592-008-0090-3

78. McMurray JJV, Solomon SD, Inzucchi SE, K0ber L, Kosiborod MN, Martinez FA, et al. Da- pagliflozin in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction. N Engl J Med. 2019;381[21]: 1995-2008. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1911303.

79. Pallisgaard JL, Schjerning AM, Lindhardt TB, Procida K, Hansen ML, Torp-Pedersen C, et al. Risk of atrial fibrillation in diabetes mellitus: a nationwide cohort study. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2016;23⑹:621-7. doi: 10.1177/2047487315599892.

80. Du X, Ninomiya T, de Galan B, Abadir E, Chalmers J, Pillai A, et al. Risks of cardiovascular events and effects of routine blood pressure lowering among patients with type 2 diabetes and atrial fibrillation: results of the ADVANCE study. Eur Heart J. 2009;30[9]:1128-35. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehp055.

81. Huxley RR, Filion KB, Konety S, Alonso A. Meta-analysis of cohort and case-control studies of type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108[1]:56-62. doi: 10.1016/j.amj- card.2011.03.004.

82. Hindricks G, Potpara T, Dagres N, Arbelo E, Bax JJ, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, et al. 2020 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with the European Association of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery [EACTS]. Eur Heart J. 2020: ehaa612. doi: 10.1093/ eurheartj/ehaa612.

83. Pedersen CT, Kay GN, Kalman J, Borggrefe M, Della-Bella P, Dickfeld T, et al. EHRA/HRS/ APHRS expert consensus on ventricular arrhythmias. Europace. 2014;16[9]:1257-83. doi: 10.1093/ europace/euu194.

84. Brignole M, Auricchio A, Baron-Esquivias G, Bordachar P, Boriani G, Breithardt OA, et al. 2013 ESC guidelines on cardiac pacing and cardiac resynchronization therapy: the Task Force on cardiac pacing and resynchronization therapy of the European Society of Cardiology [ESC]. Developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association [EHRA]. Eur Heart J. 2013;34[29]:2281-329. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/eht150.

85. Priori SG, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, Mazzanti A, Blom N, Borggrefe M, Camm J, et al. 2015 ESC guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: the task force for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death of the European Society of Cardiology [ESC]. Endorsed by: Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology [AEPC]. Eur Heart J. 2015;36[41]:2793-867. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehv316.

86. Jouven X, Lemaιtre RN, Rea TD, Sotoodehnia N, Empana JP, Siscovick DS. Diabetes, glucose level, and risk of sudden cardiac death. Eur Heart J. 2005;26[20]:2142-7. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehi376.

87. Chow E, Bernjak A, Williams S, Fawdry RA, Hibbert S, Freeman J, et al. Risk of cardiac arrhythmias during hypoglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular risk. Diabetes. 2014;63[5]:1738-47. doi: 10.2337/db13-0468.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.54517/ccr.v4i2.1918
(88 Abstract Views, 0 PDF Downloads)